Utilisateur:Samlepirat
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Welcome! ¡Bienvenido! Willkommen! Добро пожаловать Benvenuti Bem-vindo!
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I am able to contribute with an intermediate level of English.
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Tigre à dents de sabre
Bonjour,
je suis un Tigre à dents de sabre. |
Bienvenue ;o)
Samlepirat Je suis inscrit depuis de 12 Octobre 2006 à 23:24 (CEST)
Ci-dessous sous forme de petits tableaux, des boîtes d'utilisateurs détournées afin de vous faire profiter des liens vers les catégories et/ou pages concernées, sans pour autant vous forcer à user le scroll de votre souris 
D'où je viens, où vais-je...
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J'utilise...
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Comment faire un petit tableau
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[modifier] Essai de Tableau
| Fabricant | Modèle | Classe | Groupe | Tarifs Concessionnaires | Kits d'amélioration des Performances | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tarifs de Base | Kit de Niveau 1 | Kit de Niveau 2 | Kit de Niveau 3 | |||||||||||||
| $ | $ | km/h | CV | $ | km/h | CV | $ | km/h | CV | $ | km/h | CV | ||||
| Audi | A3 | F | Audi VW AG | 37000 | 500 | 245 | 250 | 5500 | 252 | 262 | 11000 | 259 | 280 | 22000 | 269 | 300 |
| Audi | TT | F | Audi VW AG | 42000 | - | 250 | 240 | 7000 | 257 | 252 | 15000 | 265 | 268 | 30000 | 275 | 288 |
| Audi | A6 4.2 Quattro | E | Audi VW AG | 71000 | 750 | 250 | 330 | 13000 | 257 | 346 | 26000 | 265 | 369 | 46000 | 275 | 396 |
| Audi | S4 Cabriolet | E | Audi VW AG | 55000 | 750 | 250 | 340 | 11000 | 257 | 357 | 22000 | 265 | 380 | 42000 | 275 | 408 |
Subscript textModèle:Cleanup Modèle:External links
[modifier] Grue (engin)
Une Grue est un appareil mécanique de levage équipé d'une bobine, de câbles, de poulies à gorges, et est utilisé pour lever et déposer des charges, ainsi que pour les déplacées horizontalement. Les grues utilises des procédés mécaniques simples afin de créer un système de levage et de déplacement de charges bien au-delà des capacités physique de l'être humain. Les grues sont couramment utilisées dans la majorités des industries lourdes. Exemple d'applications : Bâtiment et Travaux Publics elles servent à monter et/ou déplacé des charges importantes tels que des dalles préfabriquées. Métallurgie et Chaudronnerie pour l'acheminement des produits de la sortie d'usine aux wagons et/ou remorques de transport. Transport Maritimes pour le chargement/déchargement des conteneurs. Off-Shore en pleine mer durant certaines installations tel que la pose de jackets (structure porteuse de plate-formes pétrolières/gazolières).
[modifier] Overview
The first cranes were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by men or beasts-of-burden, such as donkeys. These cranes were used for the construction of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.
For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power. The first 'mechanical' power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th century. Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric motors and hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilised where the provision of power would be uneconomic.
Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms – each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, used for constructing high buildings, and the largest floating cranes, used to build oil rigs and salvage sunken ships.
This article also covers lifting machines that do not strictly fit the above definition of a crane, but are generally known as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes.
[modifier] Structure and placement
The medieval treadwheel was a large wooden wheel turning around a central shaft with a treadway wide enough for two workers walking side by side. While the earlier 'compass-arm' wheel had spokes directly driven into the central shaft, the more advanced 'clasp-arm' type featured arms arranged as chords to the wheel rim,[1] giving the possibility of using a thinner shaft and providing thus a greater mechanical advantage.[2]
Contrary to a popularly held belief, cranes on medieval building sites were neither placed on the extremely lightweight scaffolding used at the time nor on the thin walls of the Gothic churches which were incapable of supporting the weight of both hoisting machine and load. Rather, cranes were placed in the initial stages of construction on the ground, often within the building. When a new floor was completed, and massive tie beams of the roof connected the walls, the crane was dismantled and reassembled on the roof beams from where it was moved from bay to bay during construction of the vaults.[3] Thus, the crane ‘grew’ and ‘wandered’ with the building with the result that today all extant construction cranes in England are found in church towers above the vaulting and below the roof, where they remained after building construction for bringing material for repairs aloft.[4]
Less frequently, medieval illuminations also show cranes mounted on the outside of walls with the stand of the machine secured to putlogs.[5]
[modifier] Mechanics and operation
In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists - much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome[6] - were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well.[3] Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place,[3] or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall.[6]
Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load.[7] Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340.[8] While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German Teufelskralle), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.[9]
It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to forestall the load from running backward.[10] This curious absence is explained by the high friction force exercised by medieval treadwheels which normally prevented the wheel from accelerating beyond control.[7]
[modifier] Mechanical principles
There are two major considerations that are taken into account in the design of cranes. The first is that the crane must be able to lift a load of a specified weight and the second is that the crane must remain stable and not topple over when the load is lifted and moved to another location.
[modifier] Lifting capacity
Cranes illustrate the use of one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage.
- The lever. A balance crane contains a horizontal beam (the lever) pivoted about a point called the fulcrum. The principle of the lever allows a heavy load attached to the shorter end of the beam to be lifted by a smaller force applied in the opposite direction to the longer end of the beam. The ratio of the load's weight to the applied force is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the longer arm and the shorter arm, and is called the mechanical advantage.
- The pulley. A jib crane contains a tilted strut (the jib) that supports a fixed pulley block. Cables are wrapped multiple times round the fixed block and round another block attached to the load. When the free end of the cable is pulled by hand or by a winding machine, the pulley system delivers a force to the load that is equal to the applied force multiplied by the number of lengths of cable passing between the two blocks. This number is the mechanical advantage.
- The hydraulic cylinder. This can be used directly to lift the load (as with a HIAB), or indirectly to move the jib or beam that carries another lifting device.
Cranes, like all machines, obey the principle of conservation of energy. This means that the energy delivered to the load cannot exceed the energy put into the machine. For example, if a pulley system multiplies the applied force by ten, then the load moves only one tenth as far as the applied force. Since energy is proportional to force multiplied by distance, the output energy is kept roughly equal to the input energy (in practice slightly less, because some energy is lost to friction and other inefficiencies).
[modifier] Stability of crane
In order for a crane to be stable, the sum of all moments about any point such as the base of the crane must equate to zero. In practice, the magnitude of load that is permitted to be lifted (called the "rated load" in the US) is some value less than the load that will cause the crane to tip.
Under US standards for mobile cranes, the stability-limited rated load for a crawler crane is 75% of the tipping load. The stability-limited rated load for a mobile crane supported on outriggers is 85% of the tipping load.
For stationary pedistal or kingpost mounted cranes, the moment created by the boom, jib, and load is resisted by the pedistal base or kingpost. Stress within the base must be less than the yield stress of the material or the crane will fail.
[modifier] Types of cranes
[modifier] Railroad cranes
A railroad crane is a crane with flanged wheels, used by railroads. The simplest form is just a crane mounted on a railroad car or on a flatcar. More capable devices are purpose-built.
Different types of crane are used for maintenenace work, recovery operations and freight loading in goods yards.
[modifier] Mobile crane
The most basic type of mobile crane consists of a steel truss or telescopic boom mounted on a mobile platform, which may be rail, wheeled (including "truck" carriers) or caterpillar tracks. The boom is hinged at the bottom, and can be raised and lowered by cables or by hydraulic cylinders. A hook is suspended from the top of the boom by wire rope and sheaves. The wire ropes are operated by whatever prime movers the designers have available, operating through a variety of transmissions. Steam engines, electric motors and internal combustion engines (IC) have all been used. Older cranes' transmissions tended to be clutches. This was later modified when using IC engines to match the steam engines "max torque at zero speed" characteristic by the addition of a hydrokinetic element culminating in controlled torque converters. The operational advantages of this arrangement can now be achieved by electronic control of hydrostatic drives, which for size and other considerations is becoming standard. Some examples of this type of crane can be converted to a demolition crane by adding a demolition ball, or to an earthmover by adding a clamshell bucket or a dragline and scoop, although design details can limit their effectiveness.
To increase the horizontal reach of the hoist, the boom may be extended by adding a jib to the top. The jib can be fixed or, in more complex cranes, luffing (that is, able to be raised and lowered).
[modifier] Telescopic crane
A telescopic crane has a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one inside the other. A hydraulic or other powered mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase or decrease the total length of the boom. These types of booms are often used for short term construction projects, rescue jobs, lifting boats in and out of the water, etc. The relative compactness of telescopic booms make them adaptable for many mobile applications.
[modifier] Tower crane
The tower crane is a modern form of balance crane. Fixed to the ground (or "jacked up" and supported by the structure as the structure is being built), tower cranes often give the best combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings. To save space and to provide stability the vertical part of the crane is often braced onto the completed structure which is normally the concrete lift shaft in the center of the building. A horizontal boom is balanced asymmetrically across the top of the tower. Its short arm carries a counterweight of concrete blocks, and its long arm carries the lifting gear. The crane operator either sits in a cabin at the top of the tower or controls the crane by radio remote control from the ground, usually standing near the load. In the first case the operator's cabin is located at the top of the tower just below the horizontal boom. The boom is mounted on a slewing bearing and is rotated by means of a slewing motor. The lifting hook is operated by a system of sheaves.
A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic crane of smaller lifting capacity but greater height and in the case of tower cranes that have risen while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (or derrick) will sometimes be lifted to the roof of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards. A self-assembling tower crane lifts itself off the ground using jacks, allowing the next section of the tower to be inserted at ground level. It is often claimed that a large fraction of the tower cranes in the world are in use in Dubai. The exact percentage remains an open question. [1]
[modifier] Hammerhead crane
The hammerhead, or giant cantilever, crane is a fixed-jib crane consisting of a steel-braced tower on which revolves a large, horizontal, double cantilever; the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting trolley, the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the machinery and counter-balancing weight. In addition to the motions of lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking " motion, by which the lifting trolley, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design. Hammerhead cranes are generally constructed in large sizes, up to 350 tons.
The design evolved first in Germany around the turn of the 19th century and was adopted for use in British shipyards to support the battleship construction program from 1904-1914. The ability of the hammerhead crane to lift heavy weights was useful for installing large pieces of battleships such as armour plate and gun barrels. Hammerhead cranes were also installed in naval shipyards in Japan and in the USA. The British Government also installed a hammerhead crane at the Singapore Naval Base (1938) and later a copy of the crane was installed at Garden Island Naval Dockyard in Sydney (1951). These cranes provided repair support for the battle fleet operating far from Great Britain.
The principal engineering firm for hammerhead cranes in the British empire was Sir William Arrol & Co Ltd.
[modifier] Truck-mounted crane
A crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the mobility for this type of crane.
Generally, these cranes are designed to be able to travel on streets and highways, eliminating the need for special equipment to transport a crane to the jobsite. When working on the jobsite, outriggers are extended horizontally from the chassis then down vertically to level and stabilize the crane while stationary and hoisting. Many truck cranes possess limited slow-travelling capability (just a few miles per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be taken not to swing the load sideways from the direction of travel, as most of the anti-tipping stability then lies in the strength and stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also have moving counterweights for stabilization beyond that of the outriggers. Loads suspended directly over the rear remain more stable, as most of the weight of the truck crane itself then acts as a counterweight to the load. Factory-calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by the crane operator to determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work as well as (on-rubber) loads and travelling speeds.
Truck cranes range in size from about 14.5 US Tons to about 600 US tons.
[modifier] Rough terrain crane
A crane mounted on an undercarriage with four rubber tires that is designed for pick-and-carry operations and for off-road and "rough terrain" applications. Outriggers that extend horizontally and vertically are used to level and stabilize the crane for hoisting.
These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines where the same engine is used for powering the undercarriage as is used for powering the crane, similar to a crawler crane. However, in a rough terrain crane, the engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than in the upper, like the crawler crane.
[modifier] Crawler crane
A crawler is a crane mounted on an undercarriage with a set of tracks that provide for the stability and mobility of the crane. Crawler cranes have both advantages and disadvantages depending on their intended use. The main advantage of a crawler is that they can move on site and perform lifts with very little set-up, as the crane is stable on its tracks with no outriggers. In addition, a crawler crane is capable of traveling with a load. The main disadvantage of a crawler crane is that they are very heavy, and cannot easily be moved from one job site to the next without significant expense. Typically, a large crawler must be disassembled and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to be transported to its next location.
[modifier] Gantry crane
A gantry crane has a hoist in a trolley which runs horizontally along gantry rails, usually fitted underneath a beam spanning between uprights which themselves have wheels so that the whole crane can move at right angles to the direction of the gantry rails. These cranes come in all sizes, and some can move very heavy loads, particularly the extremely large examples used in shipyards or industrial installations . A special version is the container crane (or "Portainer" crane, named after the first manufacturer), designed for loading and unloading ship-borne containers at a port.
[modifier] Overhead crane
Also known as a "suspended crane", this type of crane works in the same way as a gantry crane but without uprights. The hoist is on a trolley which moves in one direction along one or two beams, which move at right angles to that direction along elevated tracks, often mounted along the side walls of an assembly area in a factory. Some of them can lift very heavy loads.
[modifier] Floating crane
Floating cranes are used mainly in bridge building and port construction, but they are also used for occasional loading and unloading of especially heavy or awkward loads on and off ships. Some floating cranes are mounted on a pontoon, others are specialized crane barges with a lifting capacity exceeding 10,000 tons and have been used to transport entire bridge sections. Floating cranes have also been used to salvage sunken ships.
Crane vessels are often used in offshore construction. The largest revolving cranes can be found on SSCV Thialf, which has two cranes with a capacity of 7,100 metric tons each.
[modifier] Vessel (Deck) crane
Located on the ships and used for cargo operations which allows to reduce costs by avoiding usage of the shore cranes. Also vital in small seaports where no shore cranes available. Mostly are electric, hydraulic, electro-hydraulic driven.
[modifier] Aerial crane
Aerial cranes usually extend from helicopters to lift large loads. Helicopters are able to travel to and lift in areas that are more difficult to reach by a conventional crane. Aerial helicopter cranes are most commonly used to lift units/loads onto shopping centers, multi-story buildings, highrises, etc. However, they can lift basically anything within their lifting capacity, (i.e. cars, boats, swimming pools, etc.). They also work as disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-up, and during wild-fires they are able to carry huge buckets of water over fires to put them out.
Examples include:
- Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane/Erickson Air Crane - civilian version
- CH-54 Tarhe - military version
- Mi-26 - Russian flying crane helicopter
[modifier] Jib crane
A Jib crane is a type of crane where a horizontal member (jib or boom), supporting a moveable hoist, is fixed to a wall or to a floor-mounted pillar. Jib cranes are used in industrial premises and on military vehicles. The jib may swing through an arc, to give additional lateral movement, or be fixed. Similar cranes, often known simply as hoists, were fitted on the top floor of warehouse buildings to enable goods to be lifted to all floors.
[modifier] Crane-like machines
The generally-accepted definition of a crane is a machine for lifting and moving heavy objects by means of ropes or cables suspended from a movable arm. As such, a lifting machine that does not use cables, or else provides only vertical and not horizontal movement, cannot strictly be called a 'crane'.
Types of crane-like lifting machine include:
- Block and tackle
- Capstan (nautical)
- Hoist (device)
- Winch
- Windlass
More technically-advanced types of such lifting machines are often known as 'cranes', regardless of the official definition of the term. Some notable examples follow:
[modifier] Loader crane
A loader crane (also called a knuckle-boom crane) is a hydraulically-powered articulated arm fitted to a truck or trailer, and is used for loading/unloading the vehicle. The numerous jointed sections can be folded into a small space when the crane is not in use. One or more of the sections may be telescopic. Often the crane will have a degree of automation and be able to unload or stow itself without an operator's instruction.
Unlike most cranes, the operator must move around the vehicle to be able to view his load; hence modern cranes may be fitted with a portable cabled or radio-linked control system to supplement the crane-mounted hydraulic control levers.
In the UK, this type of crane is almost invariably known colloquially as a "Hiab", partly because this manufacturer invented the loader crane and was first into the UK market, and partly because the distinctive name was displayed prominently on the boom arm.
[modifier] Rolloader crane
This is a loader crane mounted on a chassis with wheels. This chassis can ride on the trailer. Because the crane can move on the trailer, it can be a light crane, so the trailer is allowed to transport more goods.
Manufacturer of rolloader cranes include the Dutch Kennis [2] and the Finnish company Hiab (Hydrauliska Industri AB)....
[modifier] Stacker crane
A crane with a forklift type mechanism used in automated (computer controlled) warehouses (known as an automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS)). The crane moves on a track in an aisle of the warehouse. The fork can be raised or lowered to any of the levels of a storage rack and can be extended into the rack to store and retrieve product. The product can in some cases be as large as an automobile. Stacker cranes are often used in the large freezer warehouses of frozen food manufacturers. This automation avoids requiring forklift drivers to work in below freezing temperatures every day.
[modifier] Sidelift
A sidelift is a road going truck or semi-trailer that is used to hoist and transport ISO standard containers. Lifitng of containers is achieved through the use of parallel crane like hoists, which can be used to lift a container from the ground, or from a railway vehicle.
[modifier] Cranes of special interest
- Finnieston Crane (aka the Stobcross Crane)
- – Category A -listed example of a 'hammerhead' (cantilever) crane in Glasgow's former docks
- – 50m tall, 175 tons capacity, built 1926
- Kockums Crane
- – shipyard crane formerly at Kockums, Sweden.
- – 138m tall, 1500 tonne capacity, since moved to Ulsan, South Korea
- Samson and Goliath (cranes)
- – two gantry cranes at the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast
- – Goliath is 96m tall, Samson is 106m
- – span 140m, lift-height 70m, capacity 840 tonnes each (1600 tonnes combined)
[modifier] Manufacturers
Major manufacturers of cranes include:
Modèle:Col-1-of-2
- Arcomet
- American Hoist and Derrick
- BaltKran
- Bantom and Spierings.
- Broderson Manufacturing Corp (BMC)
- Bucyrus-Erie
- Demag (Mannesman Dematic)
- Dreggen Crane AS – Design/Engineering, ship and offshore cranes
- Fassi Cranes
- Favelle Favco
- Galich Mobile Crane Plant (Galich, Russia) [3]
- Gorbel Inc.
- Grove
- Heila Cranes (Poviglio, Italy) – truck loaders, marine cranes
- HIAB (Hydrauliska Industri AB) – loader and rolloader cranes
- Hitachi Construction Machinery Co., Ltd.
- Hitachi Construction Machinery (Europe)
- Hitachi Sumitomo Cranes
- HMF (Højbjerg MaskinFabrik) – loader cranes
- Huisman-Itrec
- Koehring
- Konecranes
Modèle:Col-2-of-2
- Liebherr
- Lorain
- Manitowoc (www.manitowoccranegroup.com)
- Morris Material Handling [4] (purchased by Konecranes [5])
- National Crane
- NCK-Rapier
- North American Industries – overhead bridge cranes, gantry cranes, & monorails
- Northwest
- Palfinger – loader cranes
- P&H – (produced by Morris Material Handling [6])
- Power Electronics International, Inc. – Crane & Hoist controls
- PPM
- RDLIFT s.r.l. – tower cranes & self-erecting cranes [7]
- Ruston-Bucyrus
- Sennebogen
- SibtyazhMash
- (SHAKTI MINING EQUIPMENTS PVT. LTD) (www.shaktimining.com)
- SPANCO [8]
- Street Crane [www.streetcrane.com]
- Sumitomo
- Terex
- Vetter
- Western Mule Cranes [www.westernmule.com]
- Wolffkran
[modifier] Historic
Manufacturers that have now ceased trading as a separate entity:
- Ransomes & Rapier
[modifier] Training
- United States
- National Association of Heavy Equipment Training Schools (NAHETS)
- Morrow Equipment Company, L.L.C.
[modifier] References
[modifier] Litérature
History of cranes (L'istoire des Grues)
- Andrea Matthies: Medieval Treadwheels. Artists' Views of Building Construction, Technology and Culture, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jul., 1992), pp. 510-547
- Hans-Liudger Dienel, Wolfgang Meighörner, “Der Tretradkran,“ Publication of the Deutsches Museum (Technikgeschichte Series), 2nd ed., München 1997
- J. J. Coulton, “Lifting in Early Greek Architecture,” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 94. (1974), pp. 1-19
- Lynne Lancaster, “Building Trajan's Column,” American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul., 1999), pp. 419-439
- Michael Matheus: "Mittelalterliche Hafenkräne," in: Uta Lindgren (ed.): Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800-1400, Berlin 2001 (4th ed.), pp. 345-48 ISBN 3-7861-1748-9
[modifier] See also
- Banksman
- Pallet
- Steam shovel
- National Association of Heavy Equipment Training Schools – US educational organisation
- Naval lifting devices with one, two, and three legs: derrick, sheers, and gyn
[modifier] Related ideas
- Skyhook (structure)
Modèle:Cranes
[modifier] External links
- Worlds 1st Internet TV Channel for The UK Crane Industry
- Overhead Crane Types: bridge crane, gantry crane, & monorail
- Knots, hitches and bends
- VRML Simulation of
- Cranes & cranetruck resource.
en:Category:Machinesfr:Grue (engin)
